The fall of Constantinople in 1453 marked the end of the Byzantine Empire. Ottoman forces, led by Sultan Mehmed II, besieged the heavily fortified city for weeks. The city's massive walls had withstood previous attacks for nearly a thousand years. New Ottoman cannons eventually breached sections of these ancient defenses. The conquest reshaped trade routes and accelerated the spread of Greek scholars into Europe. According to the passage, what role did cannons play in the siege?
